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Cultural imperialismpersonal cultural diversity essay, also called cultural colonialismcomprises the cultural aspects of imperialism. Thus cultural imperialism is the practice of promoting and imposing a culture usually that of a politically powerful country over a less powerful society.
This may take the form of cultural hegemony of industrialised or politically and economically influential countries influencing general cultural values and standardising globalising civilisations elsewhere. The term "cultural imperialism" occurs especially in the fields of historycultural studiesand postcolonial theory. It is usually used in a pejorative sense, often in conjunction with calls to reject such influence.
Cultural imperialism may take various forms, such as an attitude, a formal policy, or military action personal cultural diversity essay insofar as each of these re-inforces cultural hegemony.
Although the Oxford English Dictionary has a reference to the "cultural imperialism of the Russians", [2] John Tomlinson, personal cultural diversity essay, in his book on the subject, writes that the term emerged in the s [3] and has been a focus of research since at least the s, personal cultural diversity essay. The partial and imperfect configuration of this ontology takes an implicit conceptualization of personal cultural diversity essay and attempts—and often fails—to elide other forms of collective existence.
Various academics link the term to specific media. American media critic Herbert Schiller wrote: "The concept of cultural personal cultural diversity essay today [] best describes the sum of the processes by which a society is brought into the modern world system and how its dominating stratum is attracted, pressured, forced, and sometimes bribed into shaping social institutions to correspond to, or even promote, personal cultural diversity essay, the values and structures of the dominating centre of the system.
The public media are the foremost example of operating enterprises that are used in the penetrative process. This occurs largely through the commercialization of broadcasting. Tom McPhail defined "Electronic colonialism as the dependency relationship established by the importation of communication hardware, foreign-produced software, along with engineers, technicians, and related information protocols, that establish a set of foreign norms, values, and expectations which, personal cultural diversity essay, in varying degrees, may alter the domestic cultures personal cultural diversity essay socialization processes.
Downing and Sreberny-Mohammadi state: "Imperialism is the conquest and control of one country by a more powerful one. Cultural imperialism signifies the dimensions of the process that go beyond economic exploitation or military force.
In the history of colonialismi. Western advertising has made further inroads, as have architectural and fashion styles. Subtly but powerfully, the message has often been insinuated that Western cultures are superior to the cultures of the Third World. The issue of cultural imperialism emerged largely from communication studies. Many of today's academics that employ the term, cultural imperialism, are heavily informed by the work of FoucaultDerridaSaidand other poststructuralist and postcolonialist theorists.
The work of French philosopher and social theorist Michel Foucault has heavily influenced use of the term cultural imperialism, particularly his philosophical interpretation of power and his concept of governmentality. Following an interpretation of power similar to that of MachiavelliFoucault defines power as immaterial, as a "certain type of relation between individuals" that has to do with complex strategic social positions that relate to the subject's ability to control its environment and influence those around itself.
Cultural imperialism may be an example of this. Foucault's interpretation of governance is also very important in constructing theories of transnational power structure, personal cultural diversity essay.
In his lectures at the Collège de FranceFoucault often defines governmentality as the broad art of "governing", which goes beyond the traditional conception of governance in terms of state mandates, and into other realms such as governing "a household, personal cultural diversity essay, souls, children, a province, a convent, a religious order, a family".
various subjectivities are created through power relations that are culturally specific, which lead to various forms of culturally specific governmentality such as neoliberal governmentality, personal cultural diversity essay.
Informed by the works of Noam ChomskyFoucault, and Antonio GramsciEdward Saïd is a founding figure of postcolonialism, established with the book Orientalisma humanist critique of The Enlightenmentwhich criticises Western knowledge of "The East"—specifically the English and the French constructions of what is and what is not "Oriental". the Occident, wherein one concept is defined in opposition to the other concept, and from which they emerge as of unequal value, personal cultural diversity essay.
A self-described "practical Marxist-feminist-deconstructionist" [22] Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak has published a number of works challenging the "legacy of colonialism" including A Critique of Postcolonial Reason: Towards a History of the Vanishing PresentOther Asiasand "Can the Subaltern Speak?
In "Can the Subaltern Speak? Because of this, Spivak argues that the subalternreferring to the communities that participate in the Sati, are not able to represent themselves through their own voice. Spivak says that cultural imperialism has the power to disqualify or erase the knowledge and mode of education of certain populations that are low on the social hierarchy.
Throughout "Can the Subaltern Speak? In A Critique of Postcolonial ReasonSpivak argues that Western philosophy has a history of not only exclusion of the subaltern from discourse, but also does not allow them to occupy the space of a fully human subject.
Cultural imperialism can refer to either the forced acculturation of a subject population, or to the voluntary embracing of a foreign culture by individuals who do so of their own free will.
Since these are two very different referents, the validity of the term has been called into question. Cultural influence can be seen by the "receiving" culture as either a threat to or an enrichment of its cultural identity.
It seems therefore useful to distinguish between cultural imperialism as an active or passive attitude of superiority, and the position of a culture or group that seeks to complement its own cultural production, considered partly deficient, with imported products. The imported products or services can themselves represent, or be associated with, certain values such as consumerism.
According to one argument, the "receiving" culture does not necessarily perceive this link, personal cultural diversity essay, but instead absorbs the foreign culture passively through the use of the foreign goods and services. Due to its somewhat concealed, but very potent nature, this hypothetical idea is described by some experts as " banal imperialism. Some believe that the newly globalised economy of the late 20th and early 21st century has facilitated this process through the use of new information technology.
This kind of cultural imperialism is derived from what is called " soft power ". The theory of electronic colonialism extends the issue to global cultural issues and the impact of major multi-media conglomerates, ranging from Viacompersonal cultural diversity essay, Time-WarnerDisneyNews Corpto Google and Microsoft with the focus on the hegemonic power of these mainly United States-based communication giants.
One of the reasons often given for opposing any form of cultural imperialism, voluntary or otherwise, is the preservation of cultural diversitya goal seen by some as analogous to the preservation of ecological diversity. Proponents of this idea argue either that such diversity is valuable in itself, to preserve human historical heritage and knowledge, or instrumentally valuable because it makes available more ways of solving problems and responding to catastrophes, natural or otherwise.
Of all the areas of the world that scholars have claimed to be adversely personal cultural diversity essay by imperialism, Africa is probably the most notable. In the expansive "age of imperialism" of the nineteenth century, scholars have argued that European colonisation in Africa has led to the elimination of many various cultures, worldviews, and epistemologiesparticularly through neocolonisation of public education.
are not even knowledge. Abdiclaims that imperialism inherently "involve[s] extensively interactive regimes personal cultural diversity essay heavy contexts of identity deformation, misrecognition, loss of self-esteem, and individual and social doubt in self-efficacy. Neoliberalism is often critiqued by sociologists, anthropologists, and cultural studies scholars as being culturally imperialistic.
Critics of neoliberalism, at times, claim that it is the newly predominant form of imperialism. In Dunn's work, Privatizing Polandshe argues that the expansion of the multinational corporationGerber, personal cultural diversity essay, into Poland in the s imposed Western, neoliberal governmentalityideologiesand epistemologies upon the post-soviet persons hired. In Elyachar's work, Markets of Dispossessionshe focuses on ways in which, in CairoNGOs along with INGOs and the state promoted neoliberal governmentality through schemas of economic development that relied upon "youth microentrepreneurs.
Often, methods of promoting development and social justice are critiqued as being imperialistic in a cultural sense. For example, Chandra Mohanty has critiqued Western feminismclaiming personal cultural diversity essay it has created a misrepresentation of the "third world woman" as being completely powerless, unable to resist male dominance.
Some scholars even question the intentions of those developing the field of study, personal cultural diversity essay, claiming that efforts to "develop" the Global South were never about the South itself. Instead, personal cultural diversity essay, these efforts, it is argued, were made in order to advance Western development and reinforce Western hegemony. The core of cultural imperialism thesis is integrated with the political-economy traditional approach in media effects research.
Critics of cultural imperialism commonly claim that non-Western cultures, particularly from the Third World, will forsake their traditional values and lose their cultural identities when they are solely exposed to Western media.
Nonetheless, Michael B, personal cultural diversity essay. Salwen, in his book Critical Studies in Mass Communication[14] claims that cross-consideration and integration of empirical findings on cultural imperialist influences is very critical in terms personal cultural diversity essay understanding mass media in the international sphere.
He recognises both of contradictory contexts on cultural imperialist impacts, personal cultural diversity essay. The first context is where cultural imperialism imposes socio-political disruptions on developing nations. Western media can distort images of foreign cultures and provoke personal and social conflicts to developing nations in some cases. Although he admits that outward manifestations of Western culture may be adopted, but the fundamental values and behaviours remain still.
Furthermore, positive effects might occur when male-dominated cultures adopt the "liberation" of women with exposure to Western media [34] and it stimulates ample exchange of cultural exchange.
Critics of scholars who discuss cultural imperialism have a number of critiques. Cultural imperialism is a term that is only used in discussions where cultural relativism and constructivism are generally taken as true, personal cultural diversity essay. One cannot critique promoting Western values if one believes that said values are absolutely correct.
Similarly, one cannot argue that Western epistemology is unjustly promoted in non-Western societies if one believes that those epistemologies are absolutely correct. John Tomlinson provides a critique of cultural imperialism theory and reveals major problems in the way in which the idea of personal cultural diversity essay, as opposed to economic or political, imperialism is formulated. In his book Cultural Imperialism: A Critical Introductionhe delves into the much debated " media imperialism " theory, personal cultural diversity essay.
Summarizing research on the Third World's reception of American television shows, he challenges the cultural imperialism argument, conveying his doubts about the degree to which US shows in developing nations actually carry US values and improve the profits of US companies.
Tomlinson suggests that cultural imperialism is growing in some respects, but local transformation and interpretations of imported media products propose that cultural diversification is not at an end in global society. He thus supports his argument highly criticising the concept that Americanization is occurring through global overflow of American television products.
He points personal cultural diversity essay a myriad of examples of television networks who have managed to dominate their domestic markets and that domestic programs generally top the ratings. He also doubts the concept that cultural agents are passive receivers of information. Other key critiques are that the term is not defined well, and employs further terms that are not defined well, and therefore lacks explanatory power, that cultural imperialism is hard to measure, and that the theory of a legacy of colonialism is not always true.
Personal cultural diversity essay Rothkopfmanaging director of Kissinger Associates and an adjunct professor of international affairs at Columbia University who also served as a senior U.
Commerce Department official in the Clinton Administrationwrote about cultural imperialism in his provocatively titled In Praise of Cultural Imperialism?
in the summer issue of Foreign Policy magazine. Rothkopf says that the United States should embrace "cultural imperialism" as in its self-interest. But his definition of cultural imperialism stresses spreading the values of tolerance and openness to cultural change in order to avoid war and conflict between cultures as well as expanding accepted technological and legal standards to provide free traders with enough security to do business with more countries.
Rothkopf's definition almost exclusively involves allowing individuals in other nations to accept or reject foreign cultural influences. He also mentions, but only in passing, the use of the English language and consumption of news and popular music and film as cultural dominance that he supports.
Rothkopf additionally makes the point that globalisation and the Internet are accelerating the process of cultural influence. Culture is sometimes used by the organisers of society—politicians, theologians, academics, and families—to impose and ensure order, the rudiments of which change over time as need dictates. One need only look at the 20th century's genocides. In each one, leaders used culture as a political front to fuel the passions of their armies and personal cultural diversity essay minions and to justify their actions among their people.
Rothkopf then cites genocide and massacres in ArmeniaRussia, the Holocaustpersonal cultural diversity essay, CambodiaBosnia and Herzegovina personal cultural diversity essay, Rwanda and East Timor as examples of culture in some cases expressed in the ideology of "political culture" or religion being misused to justify violence.
He also acknowledges that cultural imperialism in the past has been guilty of forcefully eliminating the cultures of natives in the Americas and in Africa, or through use of the Inquisition"and during the expansion of virtually every empire. The most important way to deal with cultural influence in any nation, according to Rothkopf, is to promote tolerance and allow, or even promote, cultural diversities that are compatible with tolerance and to eliminate those cultural differences that cause violent conflict:.
Cultural dominance can also be seen in the s in Australia where the Aboriginal Assimilation Policy acted as an attempt to wipe out the Native Australian people. The British settlers tried to biologically alter the skin colour of the Australian Aboriginal people through mixed breeding with white people. The policy also made attempts to forcefully conform the Aborigines to western ideas of dress and education.
Although the term was popularised in the s, and was used by personal cultural diversity essay original proponents to refer to cultural hegemonies in a post-colonial world, cultural imperialism has also been used to refer to times further in the past. The Ancient Greeks are known for spreading their culture around the Mediterranean and Near East through trade and conquest.
During the Archaic Periodthe burgeoning Greek city-states established settlements and personal cultural diversity essay across the Mediterranean Seaespecially in Sicily and southern Italyinfluencing the Personal cultural diversity essay and Roman peoples of the region.
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